Regulators
National and EU-level authorities responsible for enforcement of EU AI Act, GDPR, MiCA, and DORA. Profiles by country with sourced facts.
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EU EU-wide
Who is the European AI Office: the EU's enforcer for GPT-class AI models
The AI Office polices general-purpose AI models from inside the Commission: its powers, fines from August 2026, the Code of Practice, who runs it.
Who is the EBA: the EU's banking authority – and supervisor of the biggest stablecoins
The EBA writes the EU banking rulebook, stress-tests banks, supervises big stablecoins and leads DORA oversight of tech giants. Every fact sourced.
Who is the EDPB: the EU's data protection coordinator
The EDPB coordinates the EU's data-protection regulators and settles their cross-border GDPR disputes: how it works, who leads it, every binding decision.
Who is the EDPS: the EU institutions' own data protection supervisor
The EDPS polices how the EU's own institutions handle personal data and AI. Its powers, its cases against Europol and the Commission, and who runs it.
Who is EIOPA: the EU's insurance and pensions authority – and the third DORA ESA
EIOPA writes EU insurance and pension rules, stress-tests pension funds, guides insurers on AI and is one of three DORA authorities. Every fact sourced.
Who is ESMA: the EU's securities-markets supervisor and crypto rule-maker
ESMA writes the EU's crypto rules, keeps the MiCA register and fines rating agencies itself. Its money, fines, MiCA and DORA roles – every fact sourced.
FR France
Who is the ACPR: France's prudential supervisor and stablecoin authority under MiCA
The ACPR supervises France's banks and insurers under the Banque de France. Its MiCA, DORA and AI Act roles, its new chair, and the fines it imposes.
Who is the AMF: France's financial markets regulator and crypto gatekeeper under MiCA
The AMF is France's markets regulator and MiCA gatekeeper for crypto firms: its structure, chair, fines, and the end of the PSAN regime in July 2026.
Who is the CNIL: France's data protection authority, created decades before the GDPR
The CNIL is France's GDPR regulator, born in 1978 and the likely AI Act authority: who runs it, how it fines, the €325M Google and €150M Shein penalties.
DE Germany
Who is BaFin: Germany's financial regulator under MiCA and DORA
BaFin is Germany's integrated financial supervisor – banks, insurers, securities – and the national authority that licenses crypto firms under MiCA, supervises financial-sector IT resilience under DORA and, since July 2026, polices AI used in finance under the AI Act. Germany leads the EU in authorised crypto providers. What BaFin does, how it is funded, what it fines and who runs it – every fact sourced.
Who is the BfDI: Germany's federal data protection commissioner
Germany's federal data protection regulator: who it supervises, the €45M Vodafone fines, its new head from 1 October 2026, and its place under the AI Act.
Who is the BNetzA: Germany's network regulator and lead AI Act authority
Germany's Federal Network Agency runs energy, telecoms, post and rail – and since July 2026 leads AI Act supervision. Its AI powers, chamber and leaders.
IE Ireland
Who is the Central Bank of Ireland: the country's financial regulator and MiCA authority
The Central Bank of Ireland is both the country's central bank and its financial regulator – Ireland's single MiCA authority for crypto and, since 2025, its AI Act regulator for financial services. This guide covers its history, staff and money, its biggest fines, its MiCA, DORA and AI Act roles, and who runs it – every fact sourced.
Who is the DPC: Ireland's data regulator that polices much of Big Tech
The Data Protection Commission is Ireland's GDPR supervisory authority – and, because Meta, Google, Apple, TikTok, X and LinkedIn run their EU operations from Ireland, the lead regulator for much of Big Tech across the whole EU under the one-stop-shop. What it does, why one national authority carries EU-wide weight, and who runs it after the move from one Commissioner to a three-person Commission – every fact sourced.
LU Luxembourg
Who is the CNPD: Luxembourg's data regulator behind the €746M Amazon fine
The CNPD is Luxembourg's GDPR supervisory authority – a small national regulator that fined Amazon €746 million because so many global companies base their EU operations in the Grand Duchy. This guide covers its history, money and staff, the Amazon case and its annulment, its planned AI Act role and who runs it – every fact sourced.
Who is the CSSF: Luxembourg's financial regulator and single MiCA authority
The CSSF supervises the professionals and products of Luxembourg's financial sector – a fund industry of over €6 trillion – and is the country's single MiCA authority for crypto. This guide covers its history, staff and money, its sanctions, its MiCA, DORA and planned AI Act roles, and who runs it – every fact sourced.
ES Spain
Who is the AEPD: Spain's data protection authority – the EU's busiest fining regulator
The Agencia Española de Protección de Datos is Spain's GDPR supervisory authority – and, by number of fines, the most prolific data-protection enforcer in the EU. What it does, where it came from, how many complaints and fines it handles, why it is not the same body as Spain's AI agency AESIA, and the role Spain's AI bill would give it – every fact sourced.
Who is AESIA: Spain's dedicated AI supervision agency
AESIA is Spain's dedicated AI agency in A Coruña. Its status, staff, guides, its role under the AI Act and Spain's pending AI law, and who runs it.